The liberal government of former President Kufuor paved the way for revitalising the private sector, liberalising markets and privatising several public companies. However, problems remain in relation to formalising business operations in the country and corruption continues to be a problematic factor for doing business in Ghana. The informal sector in rural and urban areas continues to provide more than 90% of employment opportunities and, according to the World Bank & IFC Enterprise Surveys 2007, 69% of service companies report that they have to compete against unregistered or informal companies.

Many of the problems companies encounter stem not from regulations, but rather from continuing administrative inertia and corruption. Despite efforts made to make public administration more effective and to increase its outreach to the most remote parts of the country, the visibility of the state administration in rural areas is still limited and the issue of corruption has reportedly not been tackled successfully. The legitimacy and image of state officials are therefore seriously hampered in these areas, and companies are often subject to local rules and regulations and experience a greater corruption risk if they choose to operate in rural areas.

Transparency International's Global Corruption Barometer 2010 reveals that 12% of the surveyed households consider the business/private sector to be 'extremely corrupt'. In the World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report 2010-2011, the surveyed companies cite corruption among the five most problematic factors for conducting business in Ghana. According to the report, companies consider the occurrence of irregular payments and bribes in Ghana as not uncommon. In addition, companies behave unethically in interactions with public officials, politicians and other companies to the point that their behaviour constitutes a competitive disadvantage for the country. In the World Bank & IFC Enterprise Surveys 2007, more than a third of the surveyed companies expect to make informal payments to get things done, while 10% see corruption as a major constraint to doing business in the country. Reports of continuing systemic corruption and expectations of facilitation payments, as well as continuing deficits in business financial management, accountability and integrity should be taken seriously. For example, the US Department of State 2011 reports that foreign companies have been asked for 'favours' from contacts in Ghana, in return for facilitating business transactions. Given this environment, foreign investors considering establishing themselves or that are already doing business in Ghana are advised to consult with experienced attorneys, to develop, implement and strengthen integrity systems, and to carry out extensive due diligence.

The government of former President Kufuor showed great commitment to attracting foreign investments by improving the regulatory environment for the private sector. The Ministry for Private Sector Development was created in 2000 and was mandated to coordinate efforts to strengthen the private sector and reduce bureaucratic restrictions and impediments to private investment. The Ghana Investment Promotion Centre (GIPC) functions as a one-stop shop to eliminate some of the bureaucratic obstacles facing investors, but continues to experience resistance from the various ministries, agencies and authorities responsible for the procedures it covers. The GIPC provides companies with information on and access to investor registration forms, start up procedures, a land bank database, and general and sector-specific laws and regulations. Foreign investors are required to satisfy the provisions of the Investment Act as well as the provisions of sector-specific laws regulating banking, non-banking financial institutions, insurance, fishing, securities, and real estate. The Ghana Investment Advisory Council (GIAC) was also created to assist the government in developing policies aimed at improving the investment environment. However, despite the various initiatives to streamline private sector regulations, bureaucratic processes remain relatively slow. According to the World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report 2010-2011, inefficient government bureaucracy ranks among the most problematic factors for doing business in Ghana, and the World Bank & IFC Enterprise Survey 2007 reports that senior management can expect to spend only 4% of its time dealing with the requirements of government regulation.

Ghana has continued to increase the efficiency of its public services and has cut delays in property registration from six months to one. Starting a company, paying taxes and trading across borders have also been made easier. Transparency International Global Corruption Report 2009 reports that the promotion and facilitation of registering a company and passing from informal to formal business have resulted in a decrease in corruption, according to business executives' perception. However, despite improvements, the administrative procedures related to starting a company and obtaining various licences and permits remain time-consuming and costly compared to OECD countries. For example, according to the World Bank & IFC Doing Business 2011, starting a company in Ghana requires the entrepreneur to go through 7 procedural steps, a process which takes 12 days on average at a cost of approximately 20% of GNI per capita, while OECD countries average 5.6 procedures and 13.8 days at a cost of slightly over 5% of GNI per capita. Further reform efforts include government plans to increase infrastructure investment and revenue mobilisation through improved administration of the tax system with reduction in leakages and corruption.

According to the US Department of State 2011, high interest rates and limited access to capital can constitute restrictions for growth for local companies. For foreign companies, on the other hand, the most important obstacle for investment is the insecurity resulting from traditional land ownership structures and the complex legal system. Land ownership is based on traditional laws, which creates a high level of insecurity for investors and restricts access to finance, since land is generally not accepted as bankable security. Ghana's traditional court system and British-based 'modern law' legal systems exist in parallel, creating insecurity, especially among foreign investors, and sometimes making contract enforcement difficult. Delays in courts have led the government to introduce several initiatives to enhance investors' confidence in Ghana, including strengthening the legal framework regarding the settlement of commercial disputes. The GIPC Law, the Free Zones Law, the Labour Law, the Minerals Law, and the Mining Law outline dispute settlement procedures and provide for arbitration when no other means of dispute settlement can be agreed upon. New civil procedure rules and mandatory arbitration and mediation have reportedly reduced the time it takes to enforce contracts. The Ghana Arbitration Centre, an autonomous and non-profit institution, provides for arbitration and specialises in commercial and investment laws. Ghana's Commercial Court that is a division of the High Court in Accra tries cases in relation to commercial arbitration, intellectual property rights, commercial fraud, tax and insurance. The court uses mediation and other alternative dispute resolution mechanisms in the pre-trial stage. In many cases, foreign companies may also choose to settle commercial disputes through international arbitration bodies. Ghana signed and ratified the Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes in 1966, which allows for arbitration under the International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). However, the government has expressed a strong preference for handling disputes related to the energy sector under United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) rules. Ghana is also a signatory and contracting state to the New York Convention 1958. Access the Lexadin World Law Guide for a collection of legislation in Ghana.

Individual Corruption

In Transparency International's Global Corruption Barometer 2010, more than a third of the surveyed households consider the judiciary to be 'extremely corrupt', while more than a fifth reports to have paid a bribe in 2009.

Business Corruption

Courts are generally slow in disposing of cases and at times face challenges in enforcing decisions. Due to the high level of perceived corruption in the judicial system, many companies choose to settle cases out of court, usually with the assistance of a lawyer, according to the US Department of State 2011. The same source reports that the court system has a history of being subject to government interference. However, this is reportedly less prevalent in commercial matters.

Political Corruption

Freedom House 2010 notes that scarce resources compromise the judicial process and poorly paid judges are frequently tempted by corruption. However, it is also pointed out that judicial corruption has not taken on a systemic nature. According to another Freedom House 2010 source, the judicial system is also not free from executive interference, as the president influences the appointment of all superior court judges, including the Chief of Justice. Likewise, Supreme Court judges are appointed by the president on the advice of the Judicial Council and in consultation with the Council of State.

According to a 2007 study on judicial corruption by Ghana Integrity Initiative, the majority of both the judges, lawyers and litigants surveyed are of the opinion that corruption in the judiciary is a 'very real' phenomenon, and more than half of the judges report that they have experienced situations in which attempts have been made to influence their decisions with gifts or pressure from social relations. However, a comprehensive code of conduct for judges has been in place since 2005 and complaints against judges or judicial staff can be given to the Judicial Service's Complaint Unit. The Judicial Service of Ghana does also provide information on court fees, and judicial reforms, services and organs.

Frequency

The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2011:
- Enforcing a commercial contract in Ghana requires a company to go through an average of 36 administrative procedures, which takes an average of 487 days and costs an average of 23% of the claim.

World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2010-2011:
- Business executives give the independence of the judiciary from influences of members of government, citizens, or companies a score of 3.8 on a 7-point scale (1 'heavily influenced' and 7 'entirely independent').

- Business executives give the efficiency of the legal framework for private companies to settle disputes and to challenge the legality of government actions and/or regulations a score of 4 and 3.8 respectively on a 7-point scale (1 'extremely inefficient' and 7 'highly efficient').

Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010:
- 35% of households surveyed consider the judiciary to be 'extremely corrupt'.

- 22.6% of households who had contact with the judiciary in 2009 report to have paid a bribe.

- On average, citizens give the judiciary a score of 3.9 on a 5-point scale (1 'not at all corrupt' and 5 'extremely corrupt').

Transparency International: Bribe Payers Index 2008:
- Responding business executives assigned the judiciary a score of 3.7 on a 5-point scale (1 'not at all corrupt' and 5 'extremely corrupt').

Afrobarometer: Summary of Results Ghana 2008
- 79% of Ghanaian households surveyed perceive judges and magistrates to be involved in corruption.

The World Bank & IFC: Enterprise Surveys 2007:
- Close to 60% of companies surveyed believe that the court system is fair, impartial and uncorrupted.

Individual Corruption

According to Transparency International's Global Corruption Barometer 2010, the police are widely perceived to be corrupt by Ghanaian households, with more than half of the surveyed households report having paid a bribe to the police in 2009.

The traffic police are known to extract unofficial fees directly from drivers. According to the US Department of State 2009, police officials in Ghana are repeatedly criticised for corruption or negligence of their duties and, in addition, for acting wrongfully with impunity. The same source further notes that low salaries, which are sometimes not paid on time, contribute to the tendency to solicit bribes.

Business Corruption

Companies report that both regular and traffic police are the most frequent recipients of unofficial payments. According to Transparency International Bribe Payers Index 2008, business executives perceived the police to be the most corrupt among a number of institutions. Furthermore, according to Global Integrity 2008, the police are often condemned in the media for demanding bribes when handling court cases and for demanding bribes from motorists during vehicle registration. Companies should thus be aware of the potential for encountering demands for bribes from the police when dealing with court matters and vehicle registration. According to a January 2010 article in Ghana Today, traffic police are known for taking bribes from commercial vehicles, especially in urban areas. An example of this was to be found when four police officers from the Motor Transport and Traffic Unit in January 2010 were caught on the Achimota Overpass towards Abeka Lapaz extorting money from commercial drivers.

In the World Bank & IFC Enterprise Surveys 2007, more than a third of the surveyed companies pay for security in Ghana, while a much smaller part of these companies identifies crime, theft and disorder as major constraints to doing business in the country.

Political Corruption

According to Global Integrity 2009, the law enforcement agencies are not protected from political interference in practice. Likewise, appointments to the police are not always based on professional criteria, and party loyalties or personal relationships are often considered. Moreover, some law enforcement officials, most often high-level figures, reportedly enjoy protection from criminal investigations. The Inspector General of the Police is appointed by the President and can be removed without explanations.

The police are widely perceived as one of the most corrupt institutions in the country, but no law provides for an independent mechanism for citizens to complain about the police. Administrative mechanisms do exist, such as the Police Intelligence and Professional Standards unit that is established to address complaints and citizens can also complain to the Commission for Human Rights and Administrative Justice. However, according to Global Integrity 2009, there is a general perception that the police often protect its members when complaints are given, and several times police officers have defended police action even before investigations have started.

Frequency

World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2010-2011:
- Business executives give the reliability of Ghana's police services to enforce law and order a score of 4.2 on a 7-point scale (1 'cannot be relied upon at all' and 7 being 'can always be relied upon').

Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010:
- 56.8% of households who had contact with the police in 2009 report to have paid a bribe.

Transparency International: Bribe Payers Index 2008:
- The interviewed business executives assigned the police a score of 4.6 on a 5-point scale (1 'not at all corrupt' and 5 'extremely corrupt'), thus indicating the police as the most corruption-prone institution in Ghana.

Afrobarometer: Summary of Results Ghana 2008:
- 86% of Ghanaian households surveyed perceive the police to be involved in corruption.

The World Bank & IFC: Enterprise Surveys 2007:
- More than 42.6% of the surveyed companies pay for security in Ghana.

- 11.4% of companies surveyed identify crime, theft and disorder as a major constraint on doing business.

Individual Corruption

Many citizens identify the process of obtaining licences and permits as corrupt, as illustrated by Transparency International's Global Corruption Barometer 2010. Citizens sometimes report either offering or being required to pay a bribe in connection with obtaining permits, medical services, getting connected to public utilities, or dealing with the education system.

Business Corruption

The US Department of State 2011 notes that low-level government employees have been known to ask for a 'dash' (tip) in return for facilitating licence and permit applications. According to the same source, the government has committed itself to ensuring that public officials do not abuse their positions to demand bribes. However, companies applying for licences and permits are frequently confronted with demands for facilitation payments.

Another area for corrupt practices is business inspections conducted by government officials. Global Integrity 2009 reports that, in practice, business inspections by government officials to ensure public health and safety standards are often carried out in an arbitrary and ad-hoc manner, and bribes are paid by companies in return for favourable treatment or expedited processing.

Political Corruption

The Government of Ghana has publicly ensured that public officials do not abuse their positions of trust to enrich themselves. Richard Anane resigned his post as Minister of Roads and Transport in October 2006 after he was found guilty of conflict of interest, perjury and abuse of power in September that same year by the Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ). The CHRAJ judgements were quashed by the High Court, leading the CHRAJ to file an appeal with the Supreme Court, which it lost, as reported by Daily Graphic in an October 2007 article. Anane was subsequently absolved of corruption charges on technical grounds and was reappointed Minister of Roads and Transport by former President Kufuor in March 2008, although not without criticism.

Frequency

The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2011:
- Starting a company requires the entrepreneur to go through 7 procedures, taking 12 days and costing slightly more than 20% of income per capita.

- Building a warehouse in Ghana requires a company to go through 18 administrative steps, which take an average of 220 days at a cost of approximately 1,017% of per capita income.

- It takes an average of 1.9 years to close a business at a cost of 22% of the estate.

World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2010-2011:
- Business executives give government administrative requirements (permits, regulations, reporting) in Ghana a score of 3.5 on a 7-point scale (1 'extremely burdensome' and 7 'not burdensome at all').

Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010:
- 24.2% of households who had contact with registry and permit services in 2009 report to have paid a bribe.

- 19.7% of households who had contact with education system in 2009 report having paid a bribe.

- 10.5% of households who had contact with medical services in 2009 report to have paid a bribe.

- 10.7% of households who had contact with utilities authorities in 2009 report to have paid a bribe.

Transparency International: Bribe Payers Index 2008
- The interviewed business executives perceived the registry and permit service to be one of the most corrupt among a number of institutions and assigned it a score of 4.1 on a 5-point scale (1 being 'not at all corrupt' and 5 'extremely corrupt').

The World Bank & IFC: Enterprise Surveys 2007:
- 5% of companies indicate business licences and permits as a major constraint to doing business.

- Senior management can expect to spend an average of nearly 4% of its time dealing with the requirements of government regulations.

- Nearly 39% of companies surveyed report that they expect to make informal payments to public officials to get things done.

- 23% of companies expected to pay gifts in order to get an operating licence.

- 48% of companies expected to pay gifts in order to get a construction permit.

- Slightly more than 32% of companies surveyed expect to give gifts to obtain an electrical connection, 16% for a telephone connection and nearly 32% for a water connection.

Individual Corruption

According to Transparency International's Global Corruption Barometer 2009, a substantial amount of Ghanaian households consider bribes to land authorities to obtain favourable decisions a 'very serious problem' in Ghana. Moreover, in Transparency International's Global Corruption Barometer 2010, roughly a fifth of the surveyed households report to have paid a bribe to land authorities in 2009.

Business Corruption

According to the Bertelsmann Foundation 2010, although property rights are adequately defined and protected in law, shortcomings still exist in practice, especially in regard to lengthy legal procedures. Also Freedom House 2010 emphasises that there exist deficiencies in the property ownership documentation system; according to the report, these often lead to the extralegal resolution of land disputes, and could potentially create opportunities for corruption.  

Registering property in Ghana is less time-consuming than the regional average. However, obtaining clear title over land is difficult and the US Department of State 2011 recommends that foreign companies make thorough searches at the Lands Commission to ascertain the identity of the true owner of any land being offered for sale.

Political Corruption

According to Transparency International's Global Corruption Barometer 2009, Ghanaians perceive land administration to be distorted by grand and political corruption.

In July 2005, a television crew was arrested and detained at former President Kufuor's residence for filming a hotel building near the president's house that was allegedly purchased by Kufuor in his son's name using funds that were obtained illegally, according to IFEX.

Frequency

The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2011:
- Registering property in Ghana requires a company to go through 5 administrative steps, taking an average of 34 days at a cost of 1% of the property value, which is significantly better than regional averages.

World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2010-2011:
- Business executives give the protection of property rights in Ghana, including financial assets, a score of 4.2 on a 7-point scale (1 'very weak' and 7 'very strong').

Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010:
- 19.1% of the households surveyed reported to have paid a bribe to land services in 2009.

Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2009:
- 44% of households consider grand or political corruption in land matters to be a 'very serious problem'.

- 54% of respondents consider bribes to land authorities to obtain favorable decisions a 'very serious problem' in Ghana.

Individual Corruption

According to Transparency International Global Corruption Barometer 2009, one-third of Ghanaians surveyed reported having had contact with tax revenue officials in 2008 and of which 14% reported having paid a bribe. However, Transparency International's Global Corruption Barometer 2010 reveals that only a small percentage of the surveyed households report to have paid a bribe to tax revenue authorities in 2009.

Business Corruption

According to Transparency International Global Corruption Report 2009, most Ghanaians are not familiar with tax laws, a fact that has often led taxpayers in the private sector to complain about corruption and extortion by tax officials. According to the World Bank & IFC Enterprise Surveys 2007, companies in Ghana report that they expect to make unofficial payments when meeting with tax officials. However, companies are also known to engage in corruption in order to avoid paying taxes and many companies under-report their sales for tax purposes. According to Global Integrity 2009, tax laws are generally administered without discrimination, but complaints of corruption and harassment in relation to taxation are reportedly common.

Political Corruption

The Ghanaian tax system suffers from a range of problems, including corruption and abuse of office, misapplication of exemption laws, political interference by the executive office and low levels of capacity among tax collection agencies, such as the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), as indicated by Global Integrity 2009. According to the 2005 Auditor General's report, an IRS official was found to have embezzled GHC 4.3 billion, and Transparency International Global Corruption Report 2009 reports on high ranking IRS officials covering up tax evasions and conducting secret dealings.

Frequency

The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2011:
- A medium-sized company operating in Ghana must on average make 33 payments to the tax authorities every year and spend 224 hours preparing, filing, and paying taxes at a total tax rate of 32.7% of profits.

Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010:
- 7.2% of households who had contact with tax revenue services throughout 2009 report to have paid a bribe.

Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2009:
- 14% of households who had contact with tax revenue services throughout 2008 report to have paid a bribe.

Transparency International: Bribe Payers Index 2008:
- The business executives interviewed assigned the tax revenue authorities a score of 3.7 on a 5-point scale (1 being 'not at all corrupt' and 5 'extremely corrupt').

Afrobarometer: Summary of Results Ghana 2008:
- 79% of Ghanaian households surveyed perceive tax officials to be involved in corruption.

The World Bank & IFC: Enterprise Surveys 2007:
- 18% of companies expect to give gifts in meetings with tax officials.

- The average annual number of required meeting or visits for companies with tax officials was 4.

- 14% of companies identify tax administration as a major constraint to doing business.

- 59% of companies report that a typical company reports less than 100% of its sales for tax purposes.

Business Corruption

A fairly high percentage of companies surveyed by the World Bank & IFC Enterprise Surveys 2007 report that corruption occurs in relation to obtaining import licences. Business executives surveyed by the World Economic Forum Global Enabling Trade Report 2010 point out that time-consuming bureaucracy related to trade across borders opens the way for public officials to demand bribes in Ghana. For example, trade is impeded by customs procedures that lack efficiency, and exporting and importing require time-consuming paperwork to clear goods at the border. Corruption and bribery in these processes are not uncommon.

This perception is corroborated by Global Integrity 2009, according to which, trading route check points in Ghana foster corruption and have caused unnecessary hurdles. According to the report, bribery is common when dealing with customs officers; thus, most drivers reserve extra money for bribes to border security officials because those who refuse making payments are refused further movement.

On the other hand, smuggling operations in Ghana are supposedly on the decline in many areas due to a comprehensive campaign by the police and the Customs, Excise and Preventive Service (CEPS). Ghana News Agency stated in 2007 that drivers report that vehicles are increasingly seized by customs, which makes smuggling a risky activity. Some drivers also claim that they are required to pay unofficial fines to security personnel on their routes to get their vehicles released. Nevertheless, according to Armah 2008, for many, the risks of smuggling goods in and out of Ghana continue to outweigh the transportation and transaction costs that legal trade entails. Moreover, according to Global Integrity 2008, corruption reportedly remains commonplace in the CEPS and the institution has come to be known as a 'gold mine' for most of its staff. CEPS officials in border areas reportedly accept bribes from goods smugglers to permit them to avoid the official excise duties related to import and export. Customs activities at the Free Trade Zone at Tema have also led to much criticism.

Frequency

The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2011:
- A standard export shipment of goods requires 6 documents and takes 19 days at a cost of USD 1,013 per container.

- A standard import shipment of goods requires 7 documents and takes 29 days at a cost of USD 1,203 per container.

Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010:
- 49.1% of households who had contact with the customs authorities throughout 2009 report to have paid a bribe.

World Economic Forum: The Global Enabling Trade Report 2010:
- Business executives give the efficiency of customs procedures (formalities regulating the entry and exit of merchandise) in Ghana a score of 3.4 on a 7-point scale (1 'extremely inefficient' and 7 'extremely efficient').

- Business executives give the transparency of border administration (pervasiveness of undocumented extra payments or bribes connected with imports and exports) a score of 3.1 on a 7-point scale (1 'extremely inefficient' and 7 'extremely efficient').

Transparency International: Bribe Payers Index 2008:
- Surveyed Business executives perceived customs to be one of the most corrupt among a number of institutions and assigned it a score of 4.1 on a 5-point scale (1 'not at all corrupt' and 5 'extremely corrupt').

The World Bank & IFC: Enterprise Surveys 2007:
- 38.8% of companies report that they expect to give gifts in order to obtain an import licence.

Individual Corruption

According to the Ghana Integrity Initiative 2005, the majority of households identify that the government favours bidders based on their loyalty to the government, underhanded activities, nepotism and ethnicity when awarding contracts.

Business Corruption

According to the Public Procurement Act 2003, awards of contracts are required to be tendered and conducted by tender award committees. According to the Auditor General, the Public Procurement Act has reduced corruption in public procurement significantly. However, although the framework guiding Ghana's public procurement is said to be among the most comprehensive in the developing world, companies should note that delays in the completion of projects are common due to long procurement processes. In a similar vein, the US Department of State 2011 points out that companies cannot expect complete transparency in locally funded contracts. According to the report, there continue to be allegations of corruption in the tender process and the Ghanaian government has in the past set aside international tender awards in the name of national interest. 

According to Global Integrity 2009, the legal framework to prohibit companies proven to have bribed in a procurement process is not enforced in practice, nor is there a mechanism for monitoring assets, incomes and lifestyles of public procurement officers. Companies are recommended to use a specialised public procurement due diligence tool to help mitigate corruption risks associated with public procurement in Ghana.

Political Corruption

According to Transparency International Global Corruption Report 2009, there have been cases of grand corruption in Ghana in relation to public procurement. The tender award committees that are responsible of conducting the tendering and awarding of contracts are chaired by the political leaders of the local authorities, including the district chief executives (DCE). In 2007, when DCE Alhaji M. H. Tijani from the Yendi district was accused of directing contracts to his own construction company, he claimed that the contracts were awarded and executed on behalf of the then ruling party, using borrowed documents of private companies to generate funds for the party. Allegedly, other companies affiliated with the ruling party had also benefited from special consideration in the award of contracts.

Frequency

World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2010-2011:
- Business executives give the diversion of public funds to companies, individuals, or groups due to corruption a score of 3.3 on a 7-point scale (1 'very common' and 7 'never occurs').

- Business executives give the favouritism of government officials towards well-connected companies and individuals when deciding upon policies and contracts a score of 2.8 on a 7-point scale (1 'always show favouritism' and 7 'never show favouritism').

The World Bank & IFC: Enterprise Surveys 2007:
- 61% of companies expect to give gifts to secure a government contract.

- In order to secure a government contract, companies are expected to give a gift worth around 8% of the contract.

Business Corruption

Corruption in relation to logging is common. The World Wildlife Federation estimates that nearly 75% of logging in Ghana is illegal. According to the Energy, Environment and Development Programme 2008, illegal logging activities in Ghana include engaging in corruption to obtain forest access, to extract timber without permission or from a protected area, to harvest protected species, to extract timber in excess of agreed limits, to make fraudulent customs declarations and to evade taxes and other charges. In addition, Ghana has large reserves of a variety of minerals. Gold, diamonds, bauxite, manganese and salt are commercially exploited, along with substantial resources of iron ore. However, according to Revenue Watch Institute, transparency in the use and distribution of mineral wealth continues to be a challenge in Ghana. Although commercial gold mining has existed for over a century it has not played a leading role in guiding economic development. Further, the historic oil discovery in 2007 also raised concerns over transparency of the windfall gain that is expected to occur. Commercial extraction of oil is scheduled to start in 2011 and according to several sources such as IPS, national and international commentators are worried that Ghana's institutions are not strong enough to handle the burdens of the cash influx in a transparent way. On a positive note, however, Ghana achieved full compliant status with the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative in October 2010, which ensures greater transparency and public disclosure of the revenues from its oil, gas and mining sectors. See more under the Public Anti-Corruption Initiatives' Section.

According to the US Department of State 2011, commercial fraud is especially prevalent in gold dealings and gold buyers are advised to be cautious and avoid middlemen. Potential buyers of gold and diamond are strongly advised to deal directly with the Precious Minerals Marketing Company (PMMC) in Ghana, the sole authority through which gold and diamonds can be legally exported. Prices are based solely on the London Exchange price on the day of export, and the US Department of State 2011 notes that no discounting or negotiation of prices prior to export by the PMMC will be considered valid.

Companies report that bribery is not uncommon when dealing with environmental inspections in Ghana. For instance, Global Integrity 2009 reports that business inspections by government officials to ensure public environmental standards are frequently carried out in an arbitrary and ad-hoc manner, and bribes are often extracted from companies in return for favourable treatment or expedited processing.

• Legislation: The Criminal Code criminalises corruption in the form of active and passive bribery, extortion, wilful exploitation of public office and the use of public office for private gain. Direct and indirect corruption is illegal and both agent and principal are liable, while the nationality of the person who is bribing or being bribed is irrelevant. Attempting, preparing or conspiring to bribe is illegal. The Anti-Money Laundering Act 2008 criminalises money laundering. The Ghana Integrity Initiative (GII) has criticised the fact that the Criminal Code does not cover conflict of interest. GII argues that this should be included since Ghana has ratified international conventions (United Nations Convention against Corruption and African Union) covering this offence. Ghana is in the process of developing an anti-corruption policy for the private sector through reforms to the Business Code in order to 'robustly confront private sector corruption' in accordance with the UNCAC and the 10th Principle of the UN Global Compact. In 2003, the government passed the Public Procurement Act, the Financial Administration Act, and the Internal Audit Agency Act to promote public sector accountability and combat corruption. However, a lack of implementation capacity has prevented the legislation from fully taking effect, and the allocated budget has not provided sufficient resources to reverse this trend. Legislation in relation to reforming the Serious Fraud Office to create a new and stronger institution, and a Freedom of Information Act remains in the legislative pipeline. In March 2011, the government passed the long-awaited Petroleum Revenue Management Bill, which outlines clear rules for petroleum revenue inflows and outflows and seeks to bring greater transparency and accountability to the sector, according to Peace FM Online. Consult the Lexadin World Law Guide for a collection of laws in Ghana.

• Government Strategies: In order to demonstrate continued progress in the fight against corruption, former President Kufuor restructured government ministries in early 2006. This was done to reduce some of the bureaucratic overlap between ministries and to force out a number of ministers who had been implicated in corruption scandals. However, a number of ministers accused of graft remained in office and were not subjected to investigation. In October 2007, the Public Accounts Committee of Parliament held a public hearing on the findings of a 2005 Auditor General report. This was the first time such a hearing was made open to the media and to the public. The hearing revealed widespread abuse and misapplication of public funds. Such open hearings have been widely recognised as an important step towards greater transparency in public spending. President Mills has stressed his government's commitment to fight corruption and confront Ghana's problems of narcotics trafficking but concrete steps are still to be seen. The government has declared its intention to pass the Freedom of Information Act initiated by the Kufuor administration, which, however, was still pending in parliament as of March 2011. In addition, an independent body to manage Ghana's oil revenue and ensure transparency was expected to be set up, but no progress was made in this regard. The government will present a draft National Anti-Corruption Action Plan (NACAP) to the parliament in April 2011 for debate and subsequent approval as a national document to be used in the fight against corruption, according to a March 2011 article by Ghana Business News.

• Anti-Corruption Agency: The Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ) forms one of Ghana's two main anti-corruption bodies. It functions as a human rights commission and Ombudsman and is constitutionally independent. It is a large and relatively well-funded agency with around 200 staff members in Accra and several offices throughout the country. The CHRAJ has been investigating allegations made against the former President Kufuor over the use of state resources for private gain. Some observers see this as a sign of both genuine independence of the CHRAJ and the former government's commitment to implementing its zero-tolerance policy towards corruption. Doig, Watt & Williams 2005 report that civil society considers the CHRAJ to be strong on human rights concerns and as an Ombudsman, but weak on corruption. Critics argue that the weakness is due to fact that the CHRAJ is not economically independent from the government. According to Freedom House 2010, the CHRAJ, along with other anti-corruption bodies, faces impediments in the performance of its functions. Thus, according to the report, the CHRAJ cannot prosecute offenders and must refer investigations to the Attorney General for prosecution. In addition, it is poorly funded and has to contend with a high rate of staff attrition. Also the US Department of State 2011, points out that the agency is under-resourced and few prosecutions have been made since its inception. Furthermore, Freedom House 2010 notes that the CHRAJ is not free from the executive's influence, since its board and leaders are essentially appointed by the executive. Also Global Integrity 2009 outlines that the CHRAJ is not completely free from political interference; thus, appointments to the CHRAJ may sometimes be based on political considerations. According to the report, this is especially the case with the higher-level appointments, such as the commissioner and the deputy commissioners, who are usually nominated by the executive and approved by parliament. In 2009, the CHRAJ launched a Code of Conduct for public officials, and a working group has been established with the aim of developing a national anti-corruption plan. 

• Serious Fraud Office (SFO): The SFO is the second main anti-corruption body in Ghana. It is a public investigative agency that was established by the SFO Act of 1993 (Act 466) to monitor, investigate and, on the authority of the Attorney General, prosecute any corrupt practices involving both private and public institutions likely to result in serious financial or economic loss to the state. The SFO has been criticised for lacking independence from political forces and for lacking the authority to independently prosecute suspects. According to Freedom House 2010, the SFO just like the CHRAJ faces challenges in performing its duties, such as interference from the executive. This interference is made possible by the fact that the SFO's director and much of its board are appointed by the executive and report to the Attorney General. The SFO's name was changed to Economic and Organized Crime Office (EOCO) in 2010 and its functions were expanded to include crimes such as money laundering and other organised crimes. The EOCO is empowered to recover proceeds from criminal activities.

• The Office of Accountability (OA): The OA was established by former President Kufuor in 2003 to monitor corruption in the public service, particularly by political appointees and senior civil servants. The mandate of the OA is derived from the executive authority of the President and is prevention focused. The appointment of the head of the OA, who was the wife of a senior policy advisor to former President Kufuor and mother of an assistant to former President Kufuor, led to criticism and the questioning of the OA's independence.

• Ghana Anti-Corruption Coalition (GACC): The GACC is a cross-sector grouping of public, private and civil society organisations (CSOs) focusing on monitoring and evaluating the anti-corruption process. The GACC is composed of two executive branch organisations in the field of anti-corruption, the Serious Fraud Office and the Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice. The private sector umbrella organisation is made up of the Private Enterprise Foundation (PEF), and the umbrella organisation for religious bodies, the Forum of Religious Bodies (FORB). There are four CSOs advancing the cause of transparency, accountability and good governance under the GACC. These are the Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA), the Centre for Democratic Development Ghana (CDD), the Ghana Journalist Association (GJA) and the Ghana Integrity Initiative (GII) (see more on a selection of these organisations under 'Private Anti-Corruption Initiatives' in the Initiatives section). As a part of its Media and Advocacy Programme GACC also collaborates with several media institutions on informing the public of the importance of fighting corruption. The strategic aim of the GACC is to not only monitor and evaluate the anti-corruption process, but also to lobby, educate, influence and commit the government to mainstream anti-corruption measures and ongoing governance programmes.

• Ghana Investment Advisory Council (GIAC): The President relies on advice from the World Bank-established GIAC to attract foreign investment and to counter corruption as a disincentive to investors. The 30-member GIAC consists of multinational and local companies as well as institutional observers (IMF, WB, UNDP), and helps shape government policy in order to create an enabling investment environment. Since the early 1990s, Ghana has embarked on a privatisation programme that, with the help of the GIAC, has resulted in the sale of approximately 350 state-owned companies. Foreign entities primarily comprise of the bidders for these companies. Few local investors have sufficient capital to participate in this process except as partners with foreign companies.

• Auditor General: The Bertelsmann Foundation 2010 reports that the diversion of funds and the inappropriate use of otherwise designated budget allocations has not been a serious problem in Ghana in recent years. However, business executives surveyed in the World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report 2010-2011 report that it is not uncommon that public funds are diverted to companies, individuals, or groups due to corruption. The government practices fiscal discipline and carries out intense monitoring of spending. The most recent report from the Ghana Audit Service (GAS) has been central in the documentation and disclosure of irregular public procurement practices and corruption. The hearing of the Auditor General's report for 2005, held in November 2007, was open to the public and has lead to increased public debate on government spending. According to Global Integrity 2009, appointments to the Auditor General tend to do support its independence, although there are exceptions and appointments may in some cases be made based on political considerations. Furthermore, according to the report, the government's actions on audit reports appear unsatisfactory, particularly if they involve political figures and party loyalists, making the audit a mere formality. 

• Ghana Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (GHEITI): Ghana became an EITI pilot country in 2003 and achieved full compliant status in October 2010. EITI is an international strategic alliance between governments, private companies, civil society groups and international organisations with the objective of publicising and accounting for revenues and expenses that come from extractive industries, such as oil, mining and other extractive resource industries. In 2006, GTZ, in its capacity as lead consultant, began supporting the Ghanaian government in its efforts to implement the EITI. As part of its EITI compliance process, Ghana has published four reports covering payments and revenues from the mining industry - two in 2007, one in 2008 and one in 2010, which can all be found on the GHEITI website under 'Publications'. After significant offshore oil discoveries were made in 2007, efforts have also been undertaken to implement the oil and gas sectors under the GHEITI. This resulted in a restructuring of the GHEITI National Steering Committee in August 2010 so that it now includes stakeholders from the oil, gas and mining sectors.

• E-Governance: The Government of Ghana Official Website provides companies with links to various government ministries related to investing and doing business in Ghana, but directs companies to contact the Ghana Investment Promotion Centre for more robust investment and business advice and facilitation, including online registration and other services. The Ghana TradeNet (GTN) is an electronic trade portal set up to link trade operators, revenue agencies and regulatory bodies on one platform. The Ghana Customs Management System is an integrated part of the GTN and enables companies to complete several activities related to export and import electronically.

• Public Procurement: Former President Kufuor's administration sought to harmonise the many public procurement guidelines used in Ghana by enacting the Public Procurement Act in 2003. The act provides a comprehensive framework for developing and strengthening procurement institutions and operational processes in the context of poverty reduction, private sector development, good governance and anti-corruption. The act has also brought Ghana's public procurement policy in line with WTO standards, and standard tender documents have enhanced competition and improved efficiency and transparency in the procurement process. Nevertheless, according to the US Department of State 2011, some civil society groups have criticised the law as inadequate, and there continue to be allegations of corruption in the tender process. According to the act, major procurements require competitive bidding and strict formal requirements limit the extent of sole sourcing. Unsuccessful bidders can instigate an official review of procurement decisions and challenge the concrete procurement decision in court. Generally, the effectiveness of the procurement act could be questioned, since companies guilty of major violations of procurement regulations are in practice not prohibited from participating in future procurement bids, according to Global Integrity 2009. The act is still in the implementation phase, but in March 2009, members of Parliament called for speeding up the implementation process as a measure to avert corruption. The Government of Ghana has established the Public Procurement Authority (PPA), which provides information on regulations and relevant laws and lists tenders on its website. Ghana's achievements in the implementation of the Public Procurement Act have been recognised by the OECD Development Assistance Committee as an important tool for checking corruption in the country. Furthermore, the Auditor General has cited that the implementation of the act has significantly reduced corruption in public procurement.

• Whistle-Blowing: Ghana's Whistleblower Act 2006 provides for the manner in which individuals may, in the public interest, disclose information that relates to unlawful or other illegal conduct or corrupt practices of others. The act provides for the protection against victimisation of persons who make these disclosures, and for a fund to reward individuals for doing so. Ghana has often been criticised in the past for its lack of effective protection of people who choose to report incidents of corruption. Although the Whistleblower Act 2006 has presumably led to better protection and provisions for whistleblowers, there have not been any reviews of the implementation of the act. According to Global Integrity 2009, the protection of whistleblowers is not always enforced in practice, neither in the public sector nor in the private, where a high unemployment rate deters people from reporting on cases of corruption or abuse of power by employers. The media have reported on such abuses, but no steps have been taken to investigate the reports. The law does not make provisions for an internal mechanism for civil servants to report cases of corruption, but complaints related to corruption in the public sector can be submitted to and handled anonymously by the Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice. The Judicial Service of Ghana's Complaints Unit and the Police Intelligence and Professional Standards Bureau receive public complaints on the conduct of judicial staff and the police, respectively.

• General Comments on the Public Anti-Corruption Initiatives: The government has set up various anti-corruption bodies during the last decade. However, despite the promised policy of zero-tolerance, former President Kufuor did not manage to significantly curb corruption. Reducing corruption has proven difficult for several reasons. Several observers point out that Parliament and the independent anti-corruption institutions (the Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice and the Serious Fraud Office) lack human, material and financial resources. Furthermore, Ghana's still excessive bureaucratic system encourages corruption and asset declarations by public officials are both unverifiable and inaccessible to the public. Conclusions from the public hearings of the 2005 Auditor General report confirm a continued need to strengthen the independence and capacity of the various accountability and anti-corruption institutions in Ghana. The persistence of these problems further illustrates the need to strengthen internal audit procurement and financial administration laws. Ghana's new policy of a liberal, private sector-driven development agenda still needs to be translated into action with the implementation of a complimentary robust private sector anti-corruption policy.

• Media: The media in Ghana is generally considered to be independent, and debates about corruption are lively. Freedom of expression is constitutionally guaranteed and generally respected. Numerous private radio stations operate, and many independent newspapers and magazines are published in Accra. However, Ghana has yet to pass legislation protecting freedom of information, which, as of March 2011, was still pending in parliament. Former President Kufuor met with the press in August 2006 for an open debate about controversial issues, including allegations of financial irregularities involving Kufuor himself and concerning nepotism in political offices. Contrary to this presidential display of openness to the media, Freedom House 2010 reports that there was a large number of attacks on and acts of intimidation against journalists in 2009, particularly by New Patriotic Party (NPP) supporters. The Bertelsmann Foundation 2010 reports that there is no organised repression of the free media. The state-owned media has established an increasing degree of autonomy, but criticism of government activities is less heated than in the independent newspapers. According to several sources, the quality of reporting varies, but access to information is not controlled by the government and the Internet has made major inroads into urban society. The Ghana Journalist Association (GJA) is a member of the Ghana Anti-Corruption Coalition and works to promote high standards of professionalism, integrity and accountability in Ghana's media. Reporters Without Borders 2010 ranks Ghana 27th out of 175 countries, while Freedom House 2010 characterises Ghana's media as 'free' and ranks it 55th out of 196 countries in relation to press freedom.

• Civil Society: The Bertelsmann Foundation 2010 reports that civil society has asserted itself, with the help of prolonged civilian rule and a growing certainty that democracy has come to stay, but is mostly visible in the urban areas. One major reason for this development is continued donor support for NGOs. Another factor is that citizens are growing increasingly accustomed to the freedoms of a civil society and seem to be prepared to engage themselves outside political parties. Religious organisations are playing an increasingly important role. Trade unionism, on the other hand, remains relatively weak, but is succeeding in mobilisation when it comes to protesting against specific topics where it can tap into popular support. Many NGOs still lack professionalism and other resources, but their role in advocacy and in criticising unpopular government measures has been substantial.

• Ghana Integrity Initiative (GII): The GII functions as the local chapter of Transparency International and organises public debates on the causes and effects of corruption and ways to curb the problem. The GII aims at creating awareness about the negative effects of corruption and receives funds from several bilateral and multilateral donors. The GII has established an Advocacy and Legal Advice Centre (ALAC) that provides legal assistance to victims and witnesses of corruption. Corruption complaints can be directed to the ALAC through a toll free hotline. The GII is a member of the Ghana Anti-Corruption Coalition.

• Ghana Center for Democratic Development (CDD-Ghana): The CDD-Ghana is a NGO based in Accra working for promotion of democracy, good governance and the development of a liberal political and economic environment in Ghana. The CDD-Ghana is a member of the Ghana Anti-Corruption Coalition.

• Private Enterprise Foundation (PEF): The PEF is an organisation founded by four major business associations with the objective of influencing policy initiatives for the creation of an enabling environment for private sector business. It operates in four main areas of policy research/advocacy, contract management services, institutional capacity development and training and promotion of technology based industries. The PEF is a member of the Ghana Anti-Corruption Coalition.

• Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA): The IEA is Ghana's first public policy think-tank and is a member of the Ghana Anti-Corruption Coalition. It was founded in 1989 with the aim of broadening the debate on public policy, promoting private sector-led economic growth, and strengthening the pillars of democracy. The IEA targets unpopular laws that have high probabilities of being changed, such as those affecting business registration, imports, exchange rates, privatisation, foreign investments and banking. It distributes short policy reports containing cost-benefit analyses of existing or proposed legislation to key decision makers from government, associations and unions, religious bodies, academia and the media.

• Ghana Center for Public Integrity (GCPI): The GCPI is a non-profit, non-governmental and non-partisan organisation with the following objectives: 1) promote the practice of investigative journalism in Ghana and the West Africa sub-region; 2) build the capacity of journalists in investigative journalism, human rights and computer assisted reporting; 3) provide a forum for interaction and networking between journalists, researchers and personnel in institutions of vertical and horizontal accountability; 4) liaise with local and international organisations that work to promote investigative journalism, higher journalistic standards, good governance and anti-corruption; 5) provide a media resource centre for media training institutions, journalists and researchers; 6) press for enhanced legislative environment for the practice of investigative journalism and; 7) conduct research into governance issues, corruption, the management of public affairs and democratic consolidation.

• African Parliamentarians Network Against Corruption Ghana (APNAC): APNAC is active in capacity-building, information campaigns, promotion of anti-corruption legislation, and establishing a legal framework to promote free elections.

• Association of Ghana Industries (AGI): The AGI is a non-profit organisation that was established in 1958 by a group of indigenous Ghanaian manufacturers. Today, the AGI has more than 1,200 members from all over Ghana and is considered to be the leading voice of the private sector. The AGI's main objectives are to contribute substantially to the growth and development of industries in Ghana and to create a business climate which will allow Ghanaian companies to be internationally competitive. The AGI conducts surveys, collects data and develops policy papers for a more conducive business environment in Ghana. With the support of GTZ, the organisation conducts the AGI Business Barometer and provides input into the formulation of the National Annual Budget, consulting with numerous public institutions on a wide range of issues, including anti-corruption. The AGI conducts lobbying, networking events, workshops, management training, market research and information among other activities. It is affiliated with the PEF, the Ghana National Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the Ghana Chamber of Mines and the Ghana Employers' Association.

• Ghana Business Code (GHBC): The GHBC is a series of prescriptions based on the universal principles referred to in the UN Global Compact 10 Principles, relating to human rights, labour standards, the environment, and anti-corruption. Compliance with a code of conduct is increasingly becoming a requirement in supply chain management, business match-making, business mentoring schemes, financing, national and international procurement. The GHBC is intended to present best practices by adding requirement beyond core labour rights. While the GHBC is the first code ever formulated to apply to all segments of the national business community, it does not substitute sound legislation protecting the interests of employees, customers, or shareholders.

The websites listed below provide useful facts on Ghana as well as contacts and tools for companies operating in Ghana:

• International Finance Corporation: West Africa SME Toolkit (in French)
  Guide to sustainable business management practices for SMEs.
• Business Fighting Corruption
  An online resource centre for business on collective action to avoid corruption which contains a guide and resources for partnerships with companies and other stakeholders to fight against corruption.
• CIA World Factbook: Ghana Country Profile
• World Bank: Ghana Data Profile

Sources for further reading:

• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Ghana 2011.
• Freedom House: Countries at the Crossroads - Ghana 2010.
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Ghana 2010.
• The Bertelsmann Foundation: Transformation Index - Ghana 2010.
• US Department of State: Human Rights Report - Ghana 2009.
• Global Integrity: Ghana Country Report 2009.

UNCAC Status: Signed 9 December 2004. Ratified 27 June 2007.

Status on UNCAC Implementation
This field describes the country's status on the United Nations Convention against Corruption. Please note any declarations and reservations made upon ratification. The list of signatories can be found on the UNODC website. Read more about the UNCAC.

Other Relevant Conventions or Treaties:

• AU Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption: Signed 31 October 2003. Ratified 13 June 2007.
  Read Transparency International's summary and assessment of the convention.

Transparency CPI: 2011: 69/182 (Score: 3.9)

Transparency CPI
This field consists of the score for the country in question on the Corruption Perceptions Index from Transparency International as well as its ranking.

World Bank CORR Index (-2.5 - +2.5): 2010: +0.09

World Bank Corruption Index
This field consists of the score for the country in question on the 'Control of Corruption' indicator in the World Bank Governance Research Indicator Country Snapshot (GRICS): 1996-2009.

OECD Country Risk Classification (0-7): 2011: 6

Country Risk Classification
The classification of countries by risk category has the aim of providing OECD countries with a basis for calculating the premium interest rate to be charged to cover the risk of non-repayment of export credits. Countries are placed in risk categories 0 - 7, with 0 being the lowest risk category and thus the least expensive. Conversely, premium group 7 is the highest risk category. Each classification is comprised of 2 components: 1) an assessment of the country's economic/financial situation, and 2) its overall political stability. Access the complete list of OECD Country Risk Classification figures.

Data Verification:

Publicationdate: April 2011

Data verified by: Global Advice Network

General Information Sources

• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Ghana 2011.
• The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2011.
• Modern Ghana: 'Govt to rollout anti-corruption plans', 16 March 2011.
• Peace FM Online: 'Petroleum Revenue Management Bill Promises Greater Transparency And Accountability', 7 March 2011.
• Ghana Business News: 'National anti-corruption draft document to be in parliament', 1 March 2011.
• World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2010-2011.
• Freedom House: Countries at the Crossroads - Ghana 2010.
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Ghana 2010.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010.
• The Bertelsmann Foundation: Transformation Index - Ghana 2010.
• Peace FM Online: 'Independent Body to Manage Oil Money', 8 February 2010.
• US Department of State: Human Rights Report - Ghana 2009.
• Global Integrity: Ghana Country Report 2009.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2009.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Report 2009.
• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Ghana 2009.
• IPS News: 'Report Warns of 'Resource Curse' Ahead of Oil Boom', 25 may 2009.
• The Huffington Post: 'Ghana President Mills Under Pressure as Corruption Charges Surface', 20 March 2009.
• Afrique en ligne: 'Ghana Media Highlight President Mills' Anti-Corruption Measures', 28 February 2009.
• BBC News: 'Profile: Ghana President John Atta Mills', 3 January 2009.
• Afrobarometer: Summary of Results Ghana 2008.
• Afrobarometer: Briefing Paper No. 52 - 'Popular Opinions on Local Government in Ghana', August 2008.
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Ghana 2008.
• Lexadin: The World Law Guide - Legislation Ghana 2008.
• Global Integrity: Ghana Country Report 2008.
• The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business in Ghana Report 2008.
• CMI: Business Climate Surveys: Experiences from Ghana, Mozambique, and South Africa, February 2008.
• BBC News: 'Ghana Election go to a Run-off', 10 December 2008.
• Telegraph: 'Ghana Says Goodbye to President John Kufuor a Good Man in Africa', 10 December 2008.
• New Statesman: 'Ghana Votes for a Share of the Oil', 4 December 2008.
• BBC News: 'Q&A: Ghana Elections', 4 December 2008.
• The World Bank & IFC: Enterprise Surveys 2007.
• CDD-Ghana: 'CDD Issues Statement on PAC Hearings', 6 November 2007.
• The Statesman: 'Parliament's Accounts Committee to Sit in Public', 24 September 2007.
• Global Integrity: Ghana Country Report 2006.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Report 2006.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Report 2005.
• Afrobarometer: Summary of Results Ghana 2005.
• Ghanaweb: Survey Results 2005.
• U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre: Corruption and Public Financial Management Systems in Ghana 2005.
• Ghana Integrity Initiative: Voice of the People Survey 2005.
• GTZ: Promoting the Business and Investment Climate: Promotion of the Private Sector - A Case Study from Ghana 2005.
• BBC News: Ghana Country Profile.

Corruption Levels Sources

Judicial System

• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Ghana 2011.
• The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2011.
• World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2010-2011.
• Freedom House: Countries at the Crossroads - Ghana 2010.
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Ghana 2010.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2009.
• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Ghana 2009.
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Ghana 2009.
• The Bertelsmann Foundation: Transformation Index - Ghana 2008.
• Afrobarometer: Summary of Results Ghana 2008.
• Transparency International: Bribe Payers Index 2008.
• Ghana Integrity Initiative: Report on Judicial Corruption Monitoring Exercise in Ghana 2007.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Report 2007.
• The World Bank & IFC: Enterprise Surveys 2007.
• Ghana Integrity Initiative: Voice of the People Survey 2005.
• Afrobarometer: Summary of Results Ghana 2005.

Police

• World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2010-2011.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010.
• Ghana Today: 'Police Grabbed With Bribe Money', 28 January 2010.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2009.
• Global Integrity: Ghana Country Report 2009.
• Global Integrity: Ghana Country Report 2008.
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Ghana 2008.
• US Department of State: Human Rights Report - Ghana 2008.
• Afrobarometer: Summary of Results Ghana 2008.
• Transparency International: Bribe Payers Index 2008.
• The World Bank & IFC: Enterprise Surveys 2007.
• Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada: 'Ghana: Reports of corruption and bribery inside the police force', 2 October 2006.
• Ghanaian Chronicle: 'Police Caught in Highway Robbery', 7 February 2006.
• Ghana Integrity Initiative: Voice of the People Survey 2005.
• U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre: Corruption and Public Financial Management Systems in Ghana 2005.

Licences, Infrastructure and Public Utilities

• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Ghana 2011.
• The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2011.
• World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2010-2011.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010.
• Global Integrity: Ghana Country Report 2009.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2009.
• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Ghana 2009.
• Global Integrity: Ghana Country Report 2008.
• Transparency International: Bribe Payers Index 2008.
• The World Bank & IFC: Enterprise Surveys 2007.
• Daily Graphic: 'Supreme Court: CHRAJ findings against Anane still quashed', 31 October 2007.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Report 2005.
• American Society for Public Administration: Recovering the Ethic of Public Service in Africa, Vol. 28, No. 7, July 2005.
• The Daily Graphis: 'Scandal Uncovered Within Road Sector', 31 January 2005.

Land Administration

• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Ghana 2011.
• The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2011.
• World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2010-2011.
• Freedom House: Countries at the Crossroads - Ghana 2010.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2009.
• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Ghana 2009.
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Ghana 2008.
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Ghana 2007.
• IFEX: 'Television crew detained', 22 July 2005.

Tax Administration

• The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2011.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2009.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Report 2009.
• Global Integrity: Ghana Country Report 2009.
• Transparency International: Bribe Payers Index 2008.
• Afrobarometer: Summary of Results Ghana 2008.
• The World Bank & IFC: Enterprise Surveys 2007.
• Ghanaian Chronicle: 'After the Public Accounts Committee Hearing - What next?', 1 November 2007.
• Afrobarometer: Summary of Results Ghana 2005.

Customs Administration

• The World Bank & IFC: Doing Business 2011.
• World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2010-2011.
• World Economic Forum: Global Enabling Trade Report 2010.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2010.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2009.
• Global Integrity: Ghana Country Report 2009.
• Global Integrity: Ghana Country Report 2008.
• Armah, Stephen E.: Explaining Ghana's Good Cocoa Karma: A Smuggling-Incentive-Reversal Argument 2008.
• Transparency International: Bribe Payers Index 2008.
• The World Bank & IFC: Enterprise Surveys 2007.
• Ghana News Agency: 'Drivers now refuse to carry smuggled goods', 7 February 2007.
• Ghana Integrity Initiative: Voice of the People Survey 2005.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Report 2005.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Barometer 2005.
• U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre: Corruption and Public Financial Management Systems in Ghana 2005.

Public Procurement and Contracting

• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Ghana 2011.
• World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2010-2011.
• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Ghana 2009.
• Global Integrity: Ghana Country Report 2009.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Report 2009.
• The World Bank & IFC: Enterprise Surveys 2007.
• U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre: Corruption in Public Procurement 2006.
• Global Integrity: Ghana Country Report 2006.
• OSEC - Business Network Switzerland: Ghana Public Procurement, November 2006.
• Ghana Integrity Initiative: Voice of the People Survey 2005.
• Global Unions Anti-corruption Network & Unicorn: Enron Subsidiary Azurix in Corruption Scandal in Ghana.
• Ghanaweb: Dossier of the GREL Case.

Environment, Natural Resources and Extractive Industry

• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Ghana 2011.
• Peace FM Online: 'Petroleum Revenue Management Bill Promises Greater Transparency And Accountability', 7 March 2011.
• Global Integrity: Ghana Country Report 2009.
• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Ghana 2009.
• IPS News: 'Report Warns of 'Resource Curse' Ahead of Oil Boom', 25 may 2009.
• Energy, Environment and Development Programme: 'Ghana-EU Voluntary Partnership Agreement - What benefits?', 23 September 2008.
• Energy, Environment and Development Programme: 'Alternative livelihood for chainsaw operators', 29 August 2008.
• Random Watch Institute: Transparency Snapshot - Ghana 2007.
• Myjoyonline.com: 'SCANCEM bribery scandal - former NDC minister admits taking money', 11 November 2007.
• Africa Resource Center: 'Norwegian Multinational 419er Scams Ghana Big Time', 19 August 2007.
• Transparency International: 'Transparency International Accepts Konadu's Challenge', 26 July 2007.
• World Wildlife Federation: Threats to Ghana's environment.

Public Anti-Corruption Initiatives Sources

• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Ghana 2011.
• Modern Ghana: 'Govt to rollout anti-corruption plans', 16 March 2011.
• Peace FM Online: 'Petroleum Revenue Management Bill Promises Greater Transparency And Accountability', 7 March 2011.
• Ghana Business News: 'National anti-corruption draft document to be in parliament', 1 March 2011.
• World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2010-2011.
• Freedom House: Countries at the Crossroads - Ghana 2010.
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Ghana 2010.
• The Bertelsmann Foundation: Transformation Index - Ghana 2010.
• Peace FM Online: 'Independent Body to Manage Oil Money', 8 February 2010.
• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Ghana 2009.
• Global Integrity: Ghana Country Report 2009.
• Ghana Government Official Portal: 'Code of Conduct for Public Officers Launched', 10 December 2009.
• AllAfrica: 'Ghana: Joe Ghartey Supports Scrapping of SFO', 24 July 2009.
• AllAfrica: 'Ghana: Corruption is a Deep-Seated Social Problem', 19 March 2009.
• The Bertelsmann Foundation: Transformation Index - Ghana 2008.
• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Ghana 2008.
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Ghana 2008.
• Lexadin: The World Law Guide - Legislation Ghana 2008.
• Ghana Broadcasting Corporation: 'OECD Praises Ghana's Procurement Policy', 29 August 2008.
• Ghana Business Index: 'Anti-Corruption Policy for Private Sector', 28 March 2008.
• Government of Ghana: 'Government Working On Private Sector Anti-Corruption Policy - Minister', 19 March 2008.
• CDD-Ghana: 'CDD Issues Statement on PAC Hearings', 6 November 2007.
• The Statesman: 'Parliament's Accounts Committee to Sit in Public', 24 September 2007.
• Ghana Integrity Initiative: Alert, June 2007.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Report 2006.
• OSEC-Business Network Switzerland: Ghana Public Procurement, November 2006.
• Doig, Watt & Williams: Measuring 'Success' in Five African Anti-Corruption Commissions 2005.
• Transparency International: Global Corruption Report 2005.
• U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre: Corruption and Public Financial Management Systems in Ghana.
• Baffour Agyeman-Duah: Curbing Corruption and Improving Economic Governance - The Case of Ghana.

Private Anti-Corruption Initiatives Sources

• US Department of State: Investment Climate Statement - Ghana 2011.
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Ghana 2010.
• Freedom House: Freedom of the Press Index 2010.
• The Bertelsmann Foundation: Transformation Index - Ghana 2010.
• Reporters Without Borders: Ghana Country Report 2010.
• Freedom House: Freedom of the Press Index 2009.
• Freedom House: Freedom in the World - Ghana 2009.
• Reporters Without Borders: Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2009.
• Ghana Integrity Initiative: Alert Newsletter June 2009.
• The Bertelsmann Foundation: Transformation Index - Ghana 2008.
• Freedom House: Freedom of the Press - Ghana 2008.
• Global Integrity: Ghana Country Report 2008.
• GTZ: Ghana Joint Assistance Strategy 2007.
• Ghana Business Code (GHBC): About GHBC.